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Source text - English From previous chapters it should now be clear that eukaiotic cells are like thin elastic shells filled with an incompressible fluid, whose fundamental properties can change with circumstance. The challenge of cell mechanical measurement has been met with many ingenious testing devices.
The most straightforward tests involve directly poking the cell. A simple probe for applying small nanoNewton level poking forces to cells is a fine-tipped micropipette. When the tip bends as it pushes on the cell, the degree of bending is roughly proportional to the cell stiffness, over a range. The principle is simple: apply a small deformation to the specimen while measuring as accurately as possible both the force applied and the deformation as it evolves over time. Mechanically probing single cells and even biomolecules is becoming increasingly sophisticated. Devices for applying and measuring forces < 1 pN and deformations < nM, are available now and getting better. Combining these devices with the latest imaging, molecular biology, and bioinformatics, including modeling and simulation has led cytomechanists to revolutionize our view of the cell. These new techniques can illuminate like never before the processes responsible for operation of cellular machinery, the forces arising from molecular motors and the interactions between cells, proteins and nucleic acids.
Translation - Spanish De los capítulos anteriores debería quedar claro que las células eucarióticas son como delgadas cápsulas elásticas llenas de un líquido no comprimible, cuyas propiedades fundamentales cambian de acuerdo a las circunstancias. El reto de medir las propiedades mecánicas de las células ha sido enfrentado mediante numerosos dispositivos. En las pruebas mas sencillas se presiona directamente a la célula utilizando una micropipeta de punta delgada, capaz de aplicar fuerzas mínimas, del orden de los nanoNewtons. Cuando la punta se arquea como resultado de la compresión sobre la célula, el grado de la deformación de la punta así causado es aproximadamente proporcional a la rigidez de la célula, dentro de un rango determinado. El fundamento es sencillo: se deforma ligeramente la muestra mientras se registra de la manera mas exacta posible tanto la fuerza aplicada como la deformación causada, todo ello de manera progresiva en el tiempo. La exploración mecánica de células individuales -e incluso bio-moléculas- se hace cada vez mas sofisticada. Ya estan disponibles y en contínua mejora, dispositivos para aplicar y medir fuerzas
English to Spanish: ABOUT S.L.E.
Source text - English Specific events that occur during the development of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) can be quite variable among individual patients. The aim of this study was to identify patterns that distinguish early clinical events in SLE and to assess whether the presence of associated autoantibodies precedes the fulfillment of clinical criteria. METHODS: Through a retrospective chart review of military medical records, 130 patients who met the American College of Rheumatology (ACR) criteria for the classification of SLE were identified. The initial time at which each criterion was fulfilled was recorded. Autoantibody analysis was performed on serum samples, using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays or immunofluorescence. RESULTS: The clinical features that were observed earliest were discoid rash and seizures, which developed a mean 1.74 and 1.70 years, respectively, before the diagnosis of SLE; however, arthritis was the criterion that was most commonly observed before diagnosis. The presence of IgG rheumatoid factor (IgG-RF) preceded the development of arthritis in 15 (94%) of the 16 patients who were positive for IgG-RF and in whom arthritis developed (Z = 10.2, P < 0.0001). Analogously, IgM-RF appeared before the development of arthritis in 13 (76%) of 17 patients. Anti-double-stranded DNA antibodies were associated with renal disease and appeared before evidence of nephritis in most patients (92%) (Z = 13.3, P < 0.0001). An analysis of the appearance of autoantibodies compared with the appearance of clinical criteria not associated with them revealed no significant temporal relationship. CONCLUSION: Symptoms associated with the ACR criteria for classification of SLE are commonly present before the diagnosis of SLE, and development of organ-associated autoantibodies generally precedes the appearance of their associated clinical features.
Translation - Spanish Los eventos específicos que ocurren durante el desarrollo del lupus eritematoso sistémico (LES) pueden diferir bastante entre individuos. El estudio retrospectivo aquí reseñado intenta identificar los patrones de eventos clínicos tempranos en el LES, y evaluar si la presencia de los anticuerpos habituales precede a la aparición de los criterios clínicos de diagnóstico. Se utilizaron archivos de historias médicas para identificar 130 pacientes con criterios de LES, de acuerdo a la clasificación del American Collage of Rheumatologists (ACR). En cada caso se registró el momento en el cual aparece registrado cada criterio. Las pruebas de auto-anticuerpos fueron realizadas por ELISA o inmunofluorescencia. Las señales clínicas mas tempranas fueron el eritema discoide y las convulsiones, las cuales se desarrollaron en promedio 1.74 y 1.70 años antes del diagnóstico de LES. La presencia de factor reumatoide IGg (IgG-RF) precedió al desarrollo de la artitis en 15 de los 16 pacientes en quienes se desarrolló artritis IgG-RF positiva (Z=10.2, p
English to Spanish: NEUROPEPTIDES
Source text - English Neuropeptides are a group of intercellular signalling molecules present in the central nervous system (CNS) that function as neurotransmitters, neuromodulators, and neurohormones. Over 100 peptide neurotransmitters have been identified in mammalian systems and they have been implicated in a wide variety of physiological processes including memory and learning, pain transmission, and apetite control. Defects in the regulation of peptides are associated with several diseases including Parkinson´s. In addition to the large suite of known neuropeptides, it is reasonable to expect that many unknown or unrecognized peptides act as CNS signaling molecules. Genomic methods have identified ~150-175 G protein coupled receptors that do not have known ligands. Given that peptides are the largest family of signaling molecules, and that peptides are tipically found to be the endogenous ligands for orphan receptors, it is reasonable to expect that the ligands for these receptors will usually be peptides . Furthermore, peptides may act as co-factors or modulators of other receptors providing more opportunities for signaling. Advances in peptide identification technology have greatly increased the number of peptides and potential protein precursors that are known to be expressed in the CNS. The discovery of these new peptides provides evidence of active peptides and neurotransmitters that are yet to be identified. In this chapter we review emerging methods for the detection and identification of neuropeptides in vivo with an emphasis on peptide discovery.
Translation - Spanish Los neuropéptidos son un grupo de moléculas ´del medio extracelular que actúan en la transmisión intercelular de señales en el sistema nervioso central (SNC), y que funcionan como neurotransmisores, neromoduladores y neuro-hormonas. Se ha identificado a más de 100 neurotransmisores peptídicos en diversos sistemas presentes en mamíferos, y se ha implicado a dichas moléculas en una amplia variedad de procesos, incluyendo el aprendizaje, la memoria, la transmisión del dolor, y el control del apetito. Varias enfermedades, incluyendo al Parkinson, han sido asociadas con defectos en la regulación de péptidos. Aparte del amplio grupo de los neuropéptidos conocidos, es de suponer que todavía no han sido identificados o descubiertos muchos péptidos que actúan en el SNC como moléculas señalizadoras o mensajeras. La genómica ha permitido identificar unos 150 a 175 receptores acoplados a proteinas G, cuyos ligandos no se conocen. Siendo que los péptidos son la familia mas grande de moléculas mensajeras, y que con frecuencia se encuentran péptidos endógenamente ligados a receptores huérfanos, es razonable suponer que los ligandos naturales de estos receptores son péptidos. Mas aún, los péptidos pueden funcionar como co-factores o moduladores de otros receptores, ofreciendo así oportunidades adicionales para la transmisión de señales. El avance de la tecnología para la identificación de péptidos ha permitido aumentar considerablemente la cantidad de péptidos y precursores que se expresan en el SNC. El descubrimiento de estos nuevos péptidos sugiere que existen péptidos activos y neurotransmisores que aún no han sido identificados. El presente capítulo revisa la metodología emergente para la identificación de neuropéptidos in vivo, enfatizando su descubrimiento.
Expertise 
CV/Resume (DOC)